Beam sources yielding high current, high energy ion beams are used in magnetic confinement fusion to equip neutral beam injectors for additional heating. The performance and long-term stability of RF-driven negative ion sources, such as the ITER source, strongly depend on the distribution of caesium within the source and on its interaction with plasma-facing surfaces. Caesium is introduced to reduce the work function of the Plasma Grid and thereby enhance the surface production of negative hydrogen and deuterium ions. However, its behaviour is governed by a complex combination of transport, adsorption, desorption, surface contamination and compound formation. Reliable experimental parameters describing these processes are therefore required for the development of predictive caesium transport models for SPIDER, MITICA and future fusion neutral beam injectors. This thesis presents an experimental investigation of caesium–surface interactions performed in the CAesium Test Stand (CATS) at the Neutral Beam Test Facility in Padua. The work focused on the development of analysis methodologies and on the determination of three quantities relevant to caesium transport modelling: the evolution of the surface work function, the caesium sticking coefficient and the desorption energy of caesium-containing surface compounds. A dedicated MATLAB procedure was developed to automate the Fowler analysis of the complete photoemission dataset acquired on the caesiated molybdenum sample. The measurements showed that thermal conditioning substantially increases the photoemission response and improves its reproducibility, confirming the importance of the initial surface state. A sensitivity analysis demonstrated that even an assumed temperature error of ±100 ◦C produces an average work-function variation below approximately 0.007eV. The main limitation was instead associated with the restricted spectral coverage of the diagnostic. When the 635 nm signal became detectable, the reconstructed work function decreased abruptly by approximately 0.2eV to 0.4eV, demonstrating a systematic overestimation when the photoemission threshold was not adequately sampled. A correction procedure based on the approach proposed by IPP was therefore implemented. The caesium sticking coefficient was reconstructed by combining Quartz Crystal Microbalance, Laser Absorption Spectroscopy and Surface Ionization Detector measurements with AVOCADO transport simulations. Fresh surfaces exhibited initial sticking coefficients of approximately 70–80%, which decreased to only a few percent as the caesium exposure increased. Previously caesiated surfaces showed lower initial values of approximately 30–40%. Controlled gas-injection experiments demonstrated that exposure to air could increase the sticking coefficient from approximately 1% to 20–40%, whereas argon injection produced only minor variations. These observations show that the sticking coefficient is not a constant material property but a dynamic quantity governed by surface history, caesium accumulation and the presence of chemically active impurities. Finally, Temperature Programmed Desorption measurements revealed several adsorption states, with desorption features between approximately 700 and 1000 K and a dominant high temperature contribution near 1900 K. Analysis of the ascending edge of the first peak, assuming zero-order desorption, provided a desorption energy of Ed = 1.1 ± 0.1 eV, in agreement with literature values associated with caesium oxide desorption from tungsten surfaces.Under the first-order interpretation adopted in the previous CATS analysis, a second, higher-temperature peak was associated with the decomposition of a ternary Cs–O–W compound, corresponding to an energy of approximately 2.6 ± 0.2 eV.
Le sorgenti in grado di produrre fasci di ioni ad alta corrente e alta energia sono impiegate nei dispositivi a fusione a confinamento magnetico per alimentare gli iniettori di fasci neutri destinati al riscaldamento ausiliario del plasma. Le prestazioni e la stabilità a lungo termine delle sorgenti di ioni negativi alimentate a radiofrequenza, come quella prevista per ITER, dipendono fortemente dalla distribuzione del cesio all’interno della sorgente e dalla sua interazione con le superfici esposte al plasma. Il cesio viene introdotto per ridurre la funzione lavoro della Plasma Grid e incrementare così la produzione superficiale di ioni negativi di idrogeno e deuterio. Tuttavia, il suo comportamento è governato da una complessa combinazione di fenomeni di trasporto, adsorbimento, desorbimento, contaminazione superficiale e formazione di composti. Sono pertanto necessari parametri sperimentali affidabili che descrivano tali processi, al fine di sviluppare modelli predittivi del trasporto del cesio applicabili a SPIDER, MITICA e ai futuri iniettori di fasci neutri per la fusione. La presente tesi illustra uno studio sperimentale delle interazioni tra cesio e superfici condotto nel CAesium Test Stand (CATS), presso la Neutral Beam Test Facility di Padova. Il lavoro si è concentrato sullo sviluppo di metodologie di analisi e sulla determinazione di tre grandezze rilevanti per la modellizzazione del trasporto del cesio: l’evoluzione della funzione lavoro superficiale, il coefficiente di sticking del cesio e l’energia di desorbimento dei composti superficiali contenenti cesio. È stata sviluppata una procedura MATLAB per automatizzare l’analisi di Fowler dei dati di fotoemissione acquisiti sul campione di molibdeno cesiato. Il condizionamento termico ha aumentato la risposta fotoemissiva e migliorato la riproducibilità delle misure. Un errore di temperatura di ±100 °C produce una variazione media della funzione lavoro inferiore a circa 0.007 eV. La principale limitazione è risultata la ridotta copertura spettrale: quando il segnale a 635 nm è diventato rilevabile, la funzione lavoro ricostruita è diminuita di circa 0.2–0.4 eV, evidenziando una sovrastima sistematica quando la soglia di fotoemissione non è adeguatamente campionata. È stata quindi implementata una procedura di correzione basata sull’approccio proposto dall’IPP. Il coefficiente di sticking del cesio è stato ricostruito combinando misureottenute mediante microbilancia a cristallo di quarzo(QCM), spettroscopia di assorbimento laser (LAS) e rivelatore a ionizzazione superficiale (SID) con simulazioni di trasporto effettuate mediante AVOCADO. Le superfici fresche hanno mostrato valori iniziali del 70–80%, ridotti a pochi punti percentuali con l’aumentare dell’esposizione, mentre le superfici già cesiate hanno presentato valori iniziali del 30–40%. L’esposizione all’aria ha aumentato lo sticking da circa l’1% fino al 20–40%, mentre l’argon ha prodotto variazioni limitate, confermando il ruolo della storia superficiale e delle impurità chimicamente attive. Le misure TPD hanno infine evidenziato diversi stati di adsorbimento tra 700 e 1000 K e un contributo dominante vicino a 1900 K. L’analisi del primo picco, assumendo un desorbimento di ordine zero, ha fornito un’energia di 1.1 ± 0.1 eV, compatibile con il desorbimento di ossidi di cesio. Una precedente analisi di primo ordine ha inoltre associato un picco a temperatura più elevata alla decomposizione di un composto ternario Cs–O–W, con un’energia di 2.6 ± 0.2 eV.
Experimental study of cesium-surface interactions in vacuum conditions for applications in negative ion sources
BIZZOTTO, MARTINO
2025/2026
Abstract
Beam sources yielding high current, high energy ion beams are used in magnetic confinement fusion to equip neutral beam injectors for additional heating. The performance and long-term stability of RF-driven negative ion sources, such as the ITER source, strongly depend on the distribution of caesium within the source and on its interaction with plasma-facing surfaces. Caesium is introduced to reduce the work function of the Plasma Grid and thereby enhance the surface production of negative hydrogen and deuterium ions. However, its behaviour is governed by a complex combination of transport, adsorption, desorption, surface contamination and compound formation. Reliable experimental parameters describing these processes are therefore required for the development of predictive caesium transport models for SPIDER, MITICA and future fusion neutral beam injectors. This thesis presents an experimental investigation of caesium–surface interactions performed in the CAesium Test Stand (CATS) at the Neutral Beam Test Facility in Padua. The work focused on the development of analysis methodologies and on the determination of three quantities relevant to caesium transport modelling: the evolution of the surface work function, the caesium sticking coefficient and the desorption energy of caesium-containing surface compounds. A dedicated MATLAB procedure was developed to automate the Fowler analysis of the complete photoemission dataset acquired on the caesiated molybdenum sample. The measurements showed that thermal conditioning substantially increases the photoemission response and improves its reproducibility, confirming the importance of the initial surface state. A sensitivity analysis demonstrated that even an assumed temperature error of ±100 ◦C produces an average work-function variation below approximately 0.007eV. The main limitation was instead associated with the restricted spectral coverage of the diagnostic. When the 635 nm signal became detectable, the reconstructed work function decreased abruptly by approximately 0.2eV to 0.4eV, demonstrating a systematic overestimation when the photoemission threshold was not adequately sampled. A correction procedure based on the approach proposed by IPP was therefore implemented. The caesium sticking coefficient was reconstructed by combining Quartz Crystal Microbalance, Laser Absorption Spectroscopy and Surface Ionization Detector measurements with AVOCADO transport simulations. Fresh surfaces exhibited initial sticking coefficients of approximately 70–80%, which decreased to only a few percent as the caesium exposure increased. Previously caesiated surfaces showed lower initial values of approximately 30–40%. Controlled gas-injection experiments demonstrated that exposure to air could increase the sticking coefficient from approximately 1% to 20–40%, whereas argon injection produced only minor variations. These observations show that the sticking coefficient is not a constant material property but a dynamic quantity governed by surface history, caesium accumulation and the presence of chemically active impurities. Finally, Temperature Programmed Desorption measurements revealed several adsorption states, with desorption features between approximately 700 and 1000 K and a dominant high temperature contribution near 1900 K. Analysis of the ascending edge of the first peak, assuming zero-order desorption, provided a desorption energy of Ed = 1.1 ± 0.1 eV, in agreement with literature values associated with caesium oxide desorption from tungsten surfaces.Under the first-order interpretation adopted in the previous CATS analysis, a second, higher-temperature peak was associated with the decomposition of a ternary Cs–O–W compound, corresponding to an energy of approximately 2.6 ± 0.2 eV.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12608/109900