Allonursing, defined as the provision of milk to non-filial offspring, is a rare yet intriguing phenomenon in pinnipeds, particularly in colonial species like the Antarctic fur seal (Arctocephalus gazella). This thesis investigates the behavioural, demographic, genetic and environmental factors underlying such behaviour, distinguishing between brief, pup-initiated milk-stealing and prolonged, mother-initiated fostering. Using a uniquely integrated dataset, including fine-scale behavioural observations from 2001, a long-term mother–pup genetic dataset (1994–2020) and annual environmental records, this study evaluates three main hypotheses: (i) younger, inexperienced mothers are more prone to fostering; (ii) underweight pups are more likely to engage in milk stealing; (iii) increased environmental stress, promotes non-filial nursing events. Microsatellite-based genetic analyses enabled the identification of true mother-pup pairs, revealing 136 non-filial dyads among over 2500 examined. Statistical modelling demonstrated that maternal age was the only robust predictor of fostering: younger females showed a significantly higher propensity to allonurse, supporting the misdirected parental care hypotheses. No significant effects were found for pup weight, sex, or heterozygosity, nor for ecological factors like SAM or colony density. These findings suggest that fostering arises not from adaptive kin-directed strategies or cooperative exchanges, but rather from maternal inexperience or recognition failure in complex social environments. This research contributes novel evidence on the drivers of allonursing in otariids, advancing our understanding of the plasticity and constraints of maternal care in mammals. By demonstrating that maternal age is the main determinant of non-filial nursing, the study underscores the importance of individual behavioural variation and life-history stage in shaping parental investment strategies. Future work should explore the long-term fitness consequences of milk-stealing for both pups and foster mothers, as well as the role of behavioural traits like boldness or persistence. Antarctic fur seals thus offer an exceptional model for investigating the evolutionary boundaries of maternal care and the emergence of non-adaptive social interactions in high-density breeding systems.
L’allattamento a cuccioli non filiali (allonursing) è un fenomeno raro ma affascinante osservato nei pinnipedi, in particolare nelle specie a riproduzione coloniale come l’otaria orsina (Arctocephalus gazella). Questa tesi analizza i fattori comportamentali, demografici, genetici e ambientali alla base di questo comportamento, distinguendo tra episodi brevi di furto di latte, iniziati dal cucciolo, e forme prolungate di adozione, in cui la madre fornisce cure continuative a un cucciolo non proprio. Attraverso un approccio integrato, basato su osservazioni comportamentali dettagliate del 2001, un ampio dataset genetico madre-cucciolo (1994–2020) e dati ambientali annuali, lo studio ha valutato tre ipotesi principali: (i) le madri più giovani e inesperte sono maggiormente inclini all’allattamento non filiale; (ii) i cuccioli malnutriti hanno una maggiore tendenza a rubare il latte; (iii) condizioni ambientali più stressanti aumentano la frequenza di episodi di allattamento non filiale. Le analisi genetiche basate su microsatelliti hanno permesso di identificare 136 coppie non filiali su oltre 2500 diadi analizzate. I modelli statistici hanno indicato che l’età materna è l’unico predittore significativo dell’allattamento non filiale: le femmine più giovani mostrano una propensione significativamente maggiore all’allonursing, a sostegno dell’ipotesi del comportamento parentale mal indirizzato. Non sono emersi effetti significativi legati al peso o al sesso dei cuccioli, né a fattori genetici o ecologici, come l’indice SAM o la densità della colonia. I risultati suggeriscono che l’allonursing non è guidato da strategie adattative basate sulla parentela o sulla cooperazione, ma piuttosto da errori nel riconoscimento e inesperienza materna in contesti sociali complessi. Questa ricerca fornisce nuove evidenze sui meccanismi che regolano l’allonursing negli otaridi, contribuendo alla comprensione dei limiti e della flessibilità del comportamento materno nei mammiferi. Dimostrando che l’età materna è il principale fattore associato all’allattamento di cuccioli non propri, lo studio mette in luce il ruolo della variabilità individuale e della fase riproduttiva nel determinare le strategie di cura parentale. Futuri studi potrebbero approfondire le conseguenze a lungo termine dell’allonursing per cuccioli e madri affidatarie e indagare l’influenza di tratti comportamentali come l’audacia o la perseveranza. Le otarie orsine rappresentano così un modello eccezionale per esplorare i confini evolutivi della cura materna e l’origine di interazioni sociali non adattative in sistemi riproduttivi ad alta densità.
Evidence for age-dependent maternal susceptibility to milk stealing in Antarctic fur seals (Arctocephalus gazella)
MADONNA, NOEMI
2024/2025
Abstract
Allonursing, defined as the provision of milk to non-filial offspring, is a rare yet intriguing phenomenon in pinnipeds, particularly in colonial species like the Antarctic fur seal (Arctocephalus gazella). This thesis investigates the behavioural, demographic, genetic and environmental factors underlying such behaviour, distinguishing between brief, pup-initiated milk-stealing and prolonged, mother-initiated fostering. Using a uniquely integrated dataset, including fine-scale behavioural observations from 2001, a long-term mother–pup genetic dataset (1994–2020) and annual environmental records, this study evaluates three main hypotheses: (i) younger, inexperienced mothers are more prone to fostering; (ii) underweight pups are more likely to engage in milk stealing; (iii) increased environmental stress, promotes non-filial nursing events. Microsatellite-based genetic analyses enabled the identification of true mother-pup pairs, revealing 136 non-filial dyads among over 2500 examined. Statistical modelling demonstrated that maternal age was the only robust predictor of fostering: younger females showed a significantly higher propensity to allonurse, supporting the misdirected parental care hypotheses. No significant effects were found for pup weight, sex, or heterozygosity, nor for ecological factors like SAM or colony density. These findings suggest that fostering arises not from adaptive kin-directed strategies or cooperative exchanges, but rather from maternal inexperience or recognition failure in complex social environments. This research contributes novel evidence on the drivers of allonursing in otariids, advancing our understanding of the plasticity and constraints of maternal care in mammals. By demonstrating that maternal age is the main determinant of non-filial nursing, the study underscores the importance of individual behavioural variation and life-history stage in shaping parental investment strategies. Future work should explore the long-term fitness consequences of milk-stealing for both pups and foster mothers, as well as the role of behavioural traits like boldness or persistence. Antarctic fur seals thus offer an exceptional model for investigating the evolutionary boundaries of maternal care and the emergence of non-adaptive social interactions in high-density breeding systems.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12608/87714