The intersection of climate change, forced displacement and human exploitation: assessing the legal gaps and human rights implications in the protection of climate refugees. A case study of Bangladesh.

The present age is marked by increasingly severe and widespread crises affecting large segments of the global population. The climate crisis is one of them: there is now a broad consensus in the scientific community, as well as in public and political discourse, that the planet’s climate is changing at an unprecedented pace, largely due to human activity. Phenomena such as atmospheric and oceanic warming, ice melt, rising sea levels, and increased greenhouse gases concentration, if not adequately mitigated by large-scale action, are likely to produce serious if not catastrophic consequences for both the environment and the global population. One of the most alarming effects of climate change is its impact on human mobility. Climate-induced displacement is on the rise, forcing millions of people to cross internal and international borders and posing serious risks to their safety, livelihoods and survival. Within this context of heightened vulnerability, a third urgent global issue emerges: modern slavery. This umbrella term encompasses exploitative practices that, while not fitting the classical definition of slavery, often operate in a subtle and hidden ways, depriving individuals of liberty and subjecting them to inhumane conditions that violate fundamental human rights norms. This thesis explores the intersection of climate change, forced displacement and human exploitation, with a focus on how climate-related impacts – and the resulting displaced or migratory status – heighten the risk of modern slavery for affected communities. It also considers how the absence of a clear, binding international legal framework for the contested category of climate refugees leaves them without adequate protection. The first delineates the three issues of concern, beginning with the evolution of the international climate policy and its human rights dimensions. It examines climate-induced migration, with particular emphasis on the lack of a universally accepted definition and legal recognition for climate refugees, and introduces the concept of modern slavery by analysing its defining elements and current manifestations. The second chapter investigates the complex interlinkages among these issues. It first explores how climate change exacerbates pre-existing drivers of modern slavery, acting as a stress multiplier and influencing migration dynamics. It then examines the impact of climate change on human mobility through three main pathways: rapid-onset events, slow-onset processes and their intersections with conflict situations. Finally, it discusses how modern slavery is embedded in unsustainable industries that contribute to climate change, forming a self-reinforcing cycle. The controversial role of the renewable energy sector is also considered. The final chapter applies these insights to the case study of Bangladesh, one of the world’s hotspots for environmental disasters, climate-related displacement, and exposure to human exploitation.