Climate change and the return of the wolf: Behavioral responses of the alpine chamois

Climate warming and the recolonization of large carnivores are reshaping Italian mountain ecosystems. The Alpine chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra), a heat-sensitive ungulate, now facing both increasing temperatures and renewed wolf (Canis lupus) presence, provides an ideal model to study behavioral changes under combined climatic and predatory stress. We investigated how ambient temperature and wolf predation risk affect the time budget of free-ranging chamois in Monte Grappa (Italy), where individuals already occupy the upper elevational limit and wolves recolonized the area in 2016. Twenty-seven adults were GPS-collared and filmed during the rutting and summer periods, and behaviors were quantified through ethograms and analyzed using GLMMsinrelation to the main predictors (ambient temperature and wolf predation risk) and other control variables. Results revealed a significant interaction between temperature and sex in summer: female aggressivity increased with rising temperatures, while males showed the opposite trend, indicating sex-specific behavioral responses to temperature. These results indicate that climatic pressures can potentially alter chamois behavior, affecting their energy balance and fitness. Monitoring these behavioral shifts across seasons may therefore provide valuable indicators for assessing the long-term conservation status of Alpine ungulates in a warming and predator-rich landscape.