Background Gender-affirming hormone therapy (GAHT) modifies the hormone profile of transgender individuals, with expected effect on haematological parameters and iron metabolism. Testosterone increases the risk of erythrocytosis in individual assigned female at birth (AFAB), whereas oestrogen and antiandrogen therapy may reduce haematocrit in individuals assigned male at birth (AMAB), with a potential risk of anemia. The underlying mechanisms remain only partially understood and the role of hormonal factors, iron metabolism and genetic determinants, such as HFE gene mutations, has not yet been adequately investigated in this population. Aim of the study The aim of this study is to describe the evolution of haematological parameters and iron metabolism markers in transgender AMAB and AFAB individuals during the first 24 months of GAHT, assessing the prevalence of erythrocytosis and anaemia, the predictive role of circulating sex hormone levels, the impact of testosterone formulation, and the influence of HFE gene mutations on treatment response. Materials and methods A prospective longitudinal study was conducted at the Regional Reference Center for Gender Incongruence (CRRIG) of the University Hospital of Padua, enrolling 122 transgender individuals (60 AMAB, 62 AFAB). Participants were assessed at baseline and at 3, 6, 12, and 24 months of GAHT, with analysis at each timepoint of full blood count, hormonal profile, and iron metabolism parameters. HFE gene mutations were assessed at baseline. Erythrocytosis was defined as Hct >48% or Hb >16 g/dL, severe erythrocytosis as Hct >54%, and anaemia as Hb <12 g/dL. Results In AMAB individuals, feminising therapy induced a progressive reduction in haemoglobin (-8.6%) and haematocrit (-8.5%) at 24 months, with a cumulative incidence of erythrocytosis of 9.6% and negligible anaemia prevalence. EPO levels remained stable, suggesting EPO-independent mechanisms. In AFAB individuals, testosterone induced a 17.8% increase in haemoglobin at 24 months, with an erythrocytosis prevalence of 39.4% (cumulative incidence 36.1%), but only 3 cases of severe erythrocytosis. EPO increased significantly only at 3 months, thereafter normalising. Calculated free testosterone was the strongest predictor of erythrocytosis in AFAB individuals, with SHBG exerting a significant protective effect. In AMAB individuals, oestradiol emerged as the primary mediator of erythropoietic suppression. Injectable testosterone was associated with higher Hb, Hct, and iron indices compared to the gel formulation, with an approximately three-fold greater erythrocytosis risk. HFE mutations did not significantly modify the haematological response; in AMAB carriers, elevated MCV and MCH were observed alongside a non-significant trend towards iron accumulation. Conclusions GAHT exerts opposing and specular effects on erythropoiesis in the two groups. The high prevalence of erythrocytosis in AFAB individuals on testosterone warrants careful monitoring, with preference for the gel formulation in at-risk patients. Free testosterone and SHBG prove more informative than total testosterone alone (which nonetheless remains a powerful predictor) for erythrocytosis risk stratification. In AMAB individuals, feminising therapy significantly reduces erythrocytic values without inducing clinically relevant anaemia. HFE mutation data, while not conclusive, open an original research direction. Overall, the results highlight the urgency of establishing haematological reference thresholds specifically tailored to the transgender population.
Presupposti dello studio La terapia ormonale di affermazione di genere (GAHT) modifica il profilo degli ormoni sessuali delle persone transgender, con effetti attesi sui parametri ematici e sul metabolismo del ferro. Il testosterone aumenta il rischio di eritrocitosi negli individui assegnati femmina alla nascita (AFAB), mentre la terapia con estrogeni e antiandrogeni può ridurre l’ematocrito negli individui assegnati maschio alla nascita (AMAB), con un potenziale rischio di anemia. I meccanismi sottostanti rimangono ad oggi solo parzialmente noti e il ruolo dei fattori ormonali, del metabolismo del ferro e della genetica, come le mutazioni del gene HFE, non è ancora stato adeguatamente indagato in questa popolazione. Scopo dello studio Lo scopo del presente studio è descrivere l’evoluzione dei parametri ematologici e del metabolismo del ferro nei soggetti transgender AMAB e AFAB nei primi 24 mesi di GAHT, valutando la prevalenza di eritrocitosi e anemia, il ruolo predittivo dei livelli ematici degli ormoni sessuali, l’impatto della formulazione di testosterone e l’influenza delle mutazioni del gene HFE sulla risposta al trattamento. Materiali e metodi Studio longitudinale prospettico condotto presso il Centro di Riferimento Regionale per l’Incongruenza di Genere (CRRIG) dell’Azienda Ospedale-Università di Padova su 122 soggetti transgender (60 AMAB, 62 AFAB). I partecipanti allo studio sono stati valutati al basale e a 3, 6, 12 e 24 mesi di terapia con l’analisi ad ogni punto temporale dei parametri emocromocitometrici, del profilo ormonale e dei parametri relativi al metabolismo del ferro. Eventuali mutazioni del gene HFE sono state valutate al basale. L’eritrocitosi è stata definita come Hct >48% e/o Hb >16 g/dL, l’eritrocitosi severa come Hct >54% e l’anemia come Hb <12 g/dL. Risultati Nei soggetti AMAB la terapia femminilizzante ha determinato una riduzione progressiva di emoglobina (-8.6%) ed ematocrito (-8.5%) a 24 mesi, con incidenza cumulativa di eritrocitosi del 9.6% e prevalenza di anemia trascurabile. L'EPO è rimasta stabile, suggerendo meccanismi EPO-indipendenti. Nelle persone AFAB il testosterone ha indotto un aumento dell'emoglobina del 17.8% a 24 mesi, con prevalenza di eritrocitosi del 39.4% (incidenza cumulativa 36.1%), ma solo 3 casi di eritrocitosi severa. L'EPO è aumentata significativamente solo al terzo mese, con successiva normalizzazione. Il testosterone libero calcolato è risultato il principale predittore di eritrocitosi nelle persone AFAB, con effetto protettivo significativo della SHBG. Negli individui AMAB, l'estradiolo è emerso come principale mediatore della soppressione eritropoietica. La formulazione iniettiva di testosterone si è associata a valori più elevati di emoglobina, ematocrito e indici marziali rispetto alla formulazione gel, con un rischio di eritrocitosi circa tre volte superiore. Le mutazioni di HFE non hanno modificato significativamente la risposta ematologica; negli individui AMAB portatori sono stati osservati MCV e MCH più elevati, con una tendenza non significativa all'accumulo di ferro. Conclusioni La GAHT esercita effetti opposti e speculari sull’eritropoiesi nei due gruppi. L’elevata prevalenza di eritrocitosi nei soggetti AFAB in terapia con testosterone richiede un monitoraggio attento, preferendo la formulazione in gel nei soggetti a rischio. Il testosterone libero e la SHBG si dimostrano indicatori più informativi del testosterone totale (che si conferma comunque un potente predittore) per la stratificazione del rischio. Nei soggetti AMAB, la terapia femminilizzante riduce i valori eritrocitari senza però indurre anemia clinicamente rilevante. I dati sulle mutazioni del gene HFE, seppur non conclusivi, aprono una direzione di ricerca originale. I risultati sottolineano l’urgenza di definire valori soglia ematologici specifici per la popolazione transgender.
Effetti della terapia ormonale di affermazione di genere sull'eritropoiesi e sul metabolismo del ferro
CAMPESAN, RACHELE
2025/2026
Abstract
Background Gender-affirming hormone therapy (GAHT) modifies the hormone profile of transgender individuals, with expected effect on haematological parameters and iron metabolism. Testosterone increases the risk of erythrocytosis in individual assigned female at birth (AFAB), whereas oestrogen and antiandrogen therapy may reduce haematocrit in individuals assigned male at birth (AMAB), with a potential risk of anemia. The underlying mechanisms remain only partially understood and the role of hormonal factors, iron metabolism and genetic determinants, such as HFE gene mutations, has not yet been adequately investigated in this population. Aim of the study The aim of this study is to describe the evolution of haematological parameters and iron metabolism markers in transgender AMAB and AFAB individuals during the first 24 months of GAHT, assessing the prevalence of erythrocytosis and anaemia, the predictive role of circulating sex hormone levels, the impact of testosterone formulation, and the influence of HFE gene mutations on treatment response. Materials and methods A prospective longitudinal study was conducted at the Regional Reference Center for Gender Incongruence (CRRIG) of the University Hospital of Padua, enrolling 122 transgender individuals (60 AMAB, 62 AFAB). Participants were assessed at baseline and at 3, 6, 12, and 24 months of GAHT, with analysis at each timepoint of full blood count, hormonal profile, and iron metabolism parameters. HFE gene mutations were assessed at baseline. Erythrocytosis was defined as Hct >48% or Hb >16 g/dL, severe erythrocytosis as Hct >54%, and anaemia as Hb <12 g/dL. Results In AMAB individuals, feminising therapy induced a progressive reduction in haemoglobin (-8.6%) and haematocrit (-8.5%) at 24 months, with a cumulative incidence of erythrocytosis of 9.6% and negligible anaemia prevalence. EPO levels remained stable, suggesting EPO-independent mechanisms. In AFAB individuals, testosterone induced a 17.8% increase in haemoglobin at 24 months, with an erythrocytosis prevalence of 39.4% (cumulative incidence 36.1%), but only 3 cases of severe erythrocytosis. EPO increased significantly only at 3 months, thereafter normalising. Calculated free testosterone was the strongest predictor of erythrocytosis in AFAB individuals, with SHBG exerting a significant protective effect. In AMAB individuals, oestradiol emerged as the primary mediator of erythropoietic suppression. Injectable testosterone was associated with higher Hb, Hct, and iron indices compared to the gel formulation, with an approximately three-fold greater erythrocytosis risk. HFE mutations did not significantly modify the haematological response; in AMAB carriers, elevated MCV and MCH were observed alongside a non-significant trend towards iron accumulation. Conclusions GAHT exerts opposing and specular effects on erythropoiesis in the two groups. The high prevalence of erythrocytosis in AFAB individuals on testosterone warrants careful monitoring, with preference for the gel formulation in at-risk patients. Free testosterone and SHBG prove more informative than total testosterone alone (which nonetheless remains a powerful predictor) for erythrocytosis risk stratification. In AMAB individuals, feminising therapy significantly reduces erythrocytic values without inducing clinically relevant anaemia. HFE mutation data, while not conclusive, open an original research direction. Overall, the results highlight the urgency of establishing haematological reference thresholds specifically tailored to the transgender population.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12608/109196