Background Vascularized free osseous flap reconstruction — primarily the fibula and scapula free flaps — represents the gold standard for complex maxillofacial osseous defects arising from oncological surgery, trauma, or osteonecrosis. Osteotomy healing, encompassing both the flap-to-native bone and intra-flap interfaces, is a critical determinant of reconstructive success, as incomplete or delayed union may result in hardware failure, structural instability, and impaired functional rehabilitation. Aim of the study This study aims to describe the longitudinal evolution of bone healing in vascularized free osseous flaps used for maxillofacial reconstruction through radiological assessment at three successive timepoints, and to identify clinical and general predictors of the rate of progression toward osseous union and to explore the predictive potential of T1-weighted MRI signal of the flap bone marrow as a possible early marker of healing quality. Materials and methods A longitudinal, retrospective, single-centre study was conducted at the Maxillofacial Surgery Unit of the University Hospital of Padova, including patients who underwent fibula or scapula free flap reconstruction between 2020 and 2025. Bone healing was assessed by computed tomography at three timepoints — T0 (0–3 months), T1 (3–12 months), and T2 (12–24 months postoperatively) — at each of three osteotomy sites per patient, using a three-grade ordinal scale (grade 0: non-union; grade 1: partial union; grade 2: complete union). The healing process was modelled as a chain of unidirectional transitions between three ordered states using a multi-state Cox model, with separate estimates per osteotomy site and an overall model with patient-clustered robust standard errors. Covariates included age, sex, defect site (mandible vs. maxilla), flap type (fibula vs. scapula), pT stage, diabetes mellitus, osteoporosis, smoking, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy. Results The final cohort comprised 23 patients (10 male, 13 female; median age 62 years), yielding 181 observations and 82 events in the overall model. At T0 all osteotomies were classified as grade 0; by T1 approximately 45% showed partial union, and by T2 approximately 45% had achieved complete union, confirming the progressive nature of the consolidation process. The overall multi-state Cox model showed a concordance index of 0.753. Defect site was the strongest and most significant predictor: patients with mandibular defects showed significantly higher transition rates toward osseous union compared to those with maxillary defects (HR = 4.21; 95% CI: 2.40–7.41; p < 0.001). Early pT stage compared to advanced was independently associated with faster healing (HR = 2.73; 95% CI: 1.41–5.31; p = 0.003). No significant differences in healing rate were identified among the three osteotomy sites. Additionally, the study explores the predictive potential of T1-weighted MRI signal of the flap bone marrow, assessing whether imaging-detectable marrow maturation may correlate with the quality of bone healing. Conclusions This study documents a progressive bone healing process in maxillofacial free osseous flaps, with mandibular defect site (HR = 4.21; p < 0.001) and early pT stage (HR = 2.73; p = 0.003) as the main independent predictors of consolidation rate. T1-weighted MRI signal of the flap bone marrow did not show a statistically significant correlation with bone healing, likely due to the limited sample size and technical heterogeneity of non-systematically acquired imaging. The substantial reduction of the initial cohort due to unavailability of standardized imaging highlights the need for an integrated radiological follow-up protocol combining oncological surveillance with structured assessment of the osseous flap, and provides the basis for prospective multicentre studies to validate the identified predictors.
Background La ricostruzione del distretto maxillo-facciale mediante lembi liberi ossei rivascolarizzati rappresenta il trattamento di riferimento per i difetti ossei complessi. La guarigione delle interfacce ossee tra il lembo e l'osso nativo e tra i segmenti del lembo stesso è una fase critica del successo ricostruttivo, poiché la mancata o ritardata unione può determinare instabilità della ricostruzione, complicanze dell'osteosintesi e compromissione della riabilitazione funzionale. Scopo dello studio Il presente studio si propone di descrivere l'evoluzione longitudinale della guarigione ossea nei lembi liberi rivascolarizzati per la ricostruzione maxillo-facciale e di identificare i fattori clinici e predittivi della velocità di progressione verso la consolidazione ossea e di esplorare il potenziale predittivo del segnale RM T1-pesato del midollo osseo del lembo come possibile marcatore precoce della qualità della guarigione ossea. Materiali e metodi Lo studio è longitudinale, retrospettivo e monocentrico, include pazienti sottoposti a ricostruzione con lembo libero di fibula o di scapola tra il 2020 e il 2025. La guarigione ossea è stata valutata mediante TC a tre timepoint — T0 (0–3 mesi), T1 (3–12 mesi) e T2 (12–24 mesi dall'intervento) — per ciascuno dei punti di osteotomia analizzati per paziente, mediante una scala ordinale a tre gradi (grado 0: mancata unione; grado 1: unione parziale; grado 2: unione completa). Il processo di guarigione è stato modellato come una catena di transizioni unidirezionali tra tre stati ordinati mediante un modello di Cox multi-stato, con stime separate per ciascuna osteotomia e un modello complessivo corretto per cluster paziente. Le covariate analizzate includevano età, sesso, sede del difetto, tipo di lembo, stadio pT, diabete mellito, osteoporosi, fumo, radioterapia e chemioterapia.Risultati La coorte finale comprendeva 23 pazienti (10 uomini, 13 donne; età mediana 62 anni), per un totale di 181 osservazioni e 82 eventi nel modello complessivo. A T0 la totalità delle osteotomie era classificata come grado 0; a T1 circa il 45% presentava unione parziale e a T2 circa il 45% aveva raggiunto l'unione completa, confermando il carattere progressivo del processo di consolidazione. Il modello di Cox multi-stato complessivo mostrava un indice di concordanza di 0,753. La sede del difetto risultava il predittore più forte e significativo: i pazienti con difetto mandibolare presentavano una probabilità di progressione verso l'unione ossea significativamente superiore (HR = 4,21; IC 95%: 2,40–7,41; p < 0,001). Lo stadio pT early rispetto all'advanced era indipendentemente associato a una maggiore velocità di guarigione (HR = 2,73; IC 95%: 1,41–5,31; p = 0,003). Non venivano identificate differenze significative nella velocità di guarigione tra le tre osteotomie analizzate. L'analisi del segnale RM T1 del midollo osseo del lembo, condotta mediante valore assoluto della ROI e ROI ratio normalizzata sul massetere, non ha identificato una correlazione statisticamente significativa con la velocità di progressione della guarigione ossea.Conclusioni Lo studio documenta un processo di guarigione ossea progressivo nei lembi liberi maxillo-facciali, con la sede del difetto mandibolare (HR = 4,21; p < 0,001) e lo stadio pT early (HR = 2,73; p = 0,003) come principali predittori indipendenti della velocità di consolidazione. Il segnale RM T1-pesato del midollo osseo del lembo non ha mostrato correlazione statisticamente significativa con la guarigione ossea, verosimilmente per la limitata numerosità campionaria e l'eterogeneità tecnica degli esami. La marcata riduzione della coorte iniziale per indisponibilità di imaging standardizzato evidenzia la necessità di un protocollo di follow-up radiologico integrato e condiviso, che unifichi la sorveglianza oncologica con la valutazione strutturata del lembo osseo
Guarigione ossea nei lembi liberi rivascolarizzati per la ricostruzione del distretto testa-collo: fattori predittivi e valutazione radiologica longitudinale
DAL SECCO, MARIAVITTORIA
2025/2026
Abstract
Background Vascularized free osseous flap reconstruction — primarily the fibula and scapula free flaps — represents the gold standard for complex maxillofacial osseous defects arising from oncological surgery, trauma, or osteonecrosis. Osteotomy healing, encompassing both the flap-to-native bone and intra-flap interfaces, is a critical determinant of reconstructive success, as incomplete or delayed union may result in hardware failure, structural instability, and impaired functional rehabilitation. Aim of the study This study aims to describe the longitudinal evolution of bone healing in vascularized free osseous flaps used for maxillofacial reconstruction through radiological assessment at three successive timepoints, and to identify clinical and general predictors of the rate of progression toward osseous union and to explore the predictive potential of T1-weighted MRI signal of the flap bone marrow as a possible early marker of healing quality. Materials and methods A longitudinal, retrospective, single-centre study was conducted at the Maxillofacial Surgery Unit of the University Hospital of Padova, including patients who underwent fibula or scapula free flap reconstruction between 2020 and 2025. Bone healing was assessed by computed tomography at three timepoints — T0 (0–3 months), T1 (3–12 months), and T2 (12–24 months postoperatively) — at each of three osteotomy sites per patient, using a three-grade ordinal scale (grade 0: non-union; grade 1: partial union; grade 2: complete union). The healing process was modelled as a chain of unidirectional transitions between three ordered states using a multi-state Cox model, with separate estimates per osteotomy site and an overall model with patient-clustered robust standard errors. Covariates included age, sex, defect site (mandible vs. maxilla), flap type (fibula vs. scapula), pT stage, diabetes mellitus, osteoporosis, smoking, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy. Results The final cohort comprised 23 patients (10 male, 13 female; median age 62 years), yielding 181 observations and 82 events in the overall model. At T0 all osteotomies were classified as grade 0; by T1 approximately 45% showed partial union, and by T2 approximately 45% had achieved complete union, confirming the progressive nature of the consolidation process. The overall multi-state Cox model showed a concordance index of 0.753. Defect site was the strongest and most significant predictor: patients with mandibular defects showed significantly higher transition rates toward osseous union compared to those with maxillary defects (HR = 4.21; 95% CI: 2.40–7.41; p < 0.001). Early pT stage compared to advanced was independently associated with faster healing (HR = 2.73; 95% CI: 1.41–5.31; p = 0.003). No significant differences in healing rate were identified among the three osteotomy sites. Additionally, the study explores the predictive potential of T1-weighted MRI signal of the flap bone marrow, assessing whether imaging-detectable marrow maturation may correlate with the quality of bone healing. Conclusions This study documents a progressive bone healing process in maxillofacial free osseous flaps, with mandibular defect site (HR = 4.21; p < 0.001) and early pT stage (HR = 2.73; p = 0.003) as the main independent predictors of consolidation rate. T1-weighted MRI signal of the flap bone marrow did not show a statistically significant correlation with bone healing, likely due to the limited sample size and technical heterogeneity of non-systematically acquired imaging. The substantial reduction of the initial cohort due to unavailability of standardized imaging highlights the need for an integrated radiological follow-up protocol combining oncological surveillance with structured assessment of the osseous flap, and provides the basis for prospective multicentre studies to validate the identified predictors.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12608/109357