In modern agriculture, fertilizers are essential to sustain food production and restore the nutrients removed from soil by intensive cultivation. Urea is one of the most widely used nitrogen fertilizers because of its high nitrogen content; however, its application has significant drawbacks in terms of efficiency and environmental impact. In particular, less than half of the applied urea is taken up by crops, while the remaining fraction may be lost through processes that result in ammonia and nitrogen oxide emissions or the leaching of highly soluble nitrates. To address these issues, controlled-release systems are being investigated to make fertilizers available more gradually and in accordance with plant nutrient requirements. Some of these systems use hydrogels, which are biocompatible and biodegradable polymer networks capable of absorbing water, incorporating mineral compounds and releasing them progressively. In this thesis, hydrogels with a core-shell architecture were developed for the controlled release of urea. The main matrix was prepared using κ-carrageenan, a natural biopolymer belonging to the family of sulfated polysaccharides and extracted from red algae, gelled in the presence of KCl. Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) was added as a reinforcing component, while polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) were used to form a hydrophobic barrier. The samples were characterized by determining their swelling ratio (SR%) and performing rheological tests, including amplitude and frequency sweeps, which confirmed the formation of stable gels across the different formulations. Samples containing only κ-carrageenan showed a high water absorption capacity, with SR% values of up to 4700%. The addition of microcrystalline cellulose slightly reduced the SR% to approximately 3500% but increased the elasticity of the structure. The incorporation of hydrophobic PHAs significantly increased the elastic and viscous moduli, strengthening the matrix while reducing water absorption, with SR% values ranging from approximately 1800% to 2200%. Based on the characterization results, four core-shell hydrogels and four bulk hydrogels were prepared, and their urea-release kinetics in deionized water were compared. UV-vis colorimetric analysis showed that the core-shell structures significantly slowed urea release compared with the bulk systems, in which more than 70-80% of the incorporated urea was released within the first three hours. In the core-shell hydrogels, the initial release remained limited during the first three hours and was followed by an approximately linear phase between the third and fifth hours; release was completed within 20 hours. Although further optimization is required to achieve release times suitable for practical applications, the results indicate that the core-shell architecture and the use of PHA-based hydrophobic barriers represent a promising strategy for developing sustainable controlled-release fertilizer systems for agricultural applications.
Nell’agricoltura moderna, l’impiego dei fertilizzanti è essenziale per sostenere la produzione alimentare e reintegrare i nutrienti sottratti al suolo dalle coltivazioni intensive. L’urea è tra i fertilizzanti azotati più utilizzati grazie al suo elevato contenuto di azoto, ma la sua applicazione presenta importanti svantaggi in termini di efficienza e di impatto ambientale. In particolare, meno della metà dell’urea somministrata viene assorbita dalle colture, mentre la quota restante può essere dispersa attraverso processi che determinano emissioni di ammoniaca e ossidi di azoto o la lisciviazione di nitrati altamente solubili. Per superare tali problemi, si stanno studiando sistemi a rilascio controllato capaci di rendere il fertilizzante disponibile in modo più graduale e coerente con il fabbisogno delle piante. Alcuni di questi sistemi utilizzano idrogel, reti polimeriche biocompatibili e biodegradabili in grado di assorbire acqua, incorporare composti minerali e rilasciarli progressivamente. In questa tesi sono stati sviluppati idrogel con architettura core-shell per il rilascio controllato dell’urea. La matrice principale è stata preparata utilizzando κ-carragenina, un biopolimero naturale appartenente alla famiglia dei polisaccaridi solfati ed estratto dalle alghe rosse, gelificata in presenza di KCl; la cellulosa microcristallina (MCC) è stata aggiunta come componente di rinforzo, mentre i poliidrossialcanoati (PHA) sono stati impiegati nella formazione di una barriera idrofobica. I campioni sono stati caratterizzati mediante la determinazione del rapporto percentuale di rigonfiamento (swelling ratio, SR%) e prove reologiche (amplitude e frequency sweeps), che hanno confermato la formazione di gel stabili nelle diverse formulazioni. I campioni contenenti soltanto κ-carragenina hanno mostrato un’elevata capacità di assorbimento dell’acqua, con valori di SR% fino al 4700%. L’aggiunta di cellulosa microcristallina ha ridotto leggermente lo SR%, portandolo a circa il 3500%, ma ha aumentato l’elasticità della struttura. L’incorporazione dei PHA idrofobici ha determinato un aumento significativo dei moduli elastico e viscoso, rafforzando la matrice e riducendo contemporaneamente l’assorbimento dell’acqua, con valori di SR% compresi tra circa il 1800% e il 2200%. Sulla base dei risultati della caratterizzazione, sono stati preparati quattro idrogel core-shell e quattro idrogel bulk, confrontandone la cinetica di rilascio dell’urea in acqua deionizzata. L’analisi colorimetrica UV-vis ha mostrato che le strutture core-shell rallentano significativamente il rilascio rispetto ai sistemi bulk, nei quali oltre il 70-80% dell’urea incorporata viene rilasciato entro le prime tre ore. Negli idrogel core-shell, il rilascio iniziale è rimasto contenuto durante le prime tre ore ed è stato seguito da una fase approssimativamente lineare tra la terza e la quinta ora; il rilascio si è completato entro 20 ore. Sebbene siano necessarie ulteriori ottimizzazioni per ottenere tempi di rilascio adeguati alle applicazioni pratiche, i risultati mostrano che l’architettura core-shell e l’impiego di barriere idrofobiche a base di PHA rappresentano una strategia promettente per lo sviluppo di sistemi sostenibili per il rilascio controllato di fertilizzanti in agricoltura.
Preparazione e valutazione di idrogel a base di polisaccaridi naturali per il rilascio controllato di composti attivi
BOFFO, SIMONE
2025/2026
Abstract
In modern agriculture, fertilizers are essential to sustain food production and restore the nutrients removed from soil by intensive cultivation. Urea is one of the most widely used nitrogen fertilizers because of its high nitrogen content; however, its application has significant drawbacks in terms of efficiency and environmental impact. In particular, less than half of the applied urea is taken up by crops, while the remaining fraction may be lost through processes that result in ammonia and nitrogen oxide emissions or the leaching of highly soluble nitrates. To address these issues, controlled-release systems are being investigated to make fertilizers available more gradually and in accordance with plant nutrient requirements. Some of these systems use hydrogels, which are biocompatible and biodegradable polymer networks capable of absorbing water, incorporating mineral compounds and releasing them progressively. In this thesis, hydrogels with a core-shell architecture were developed for the controlled release of urea. The main matrix was prepared using κ-carrageenan, a natural biopolymer belonging to the family of sulfated polysaccharides and extracted from red algae, gelled in the presence of KCl. Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) was added as a reinforcing component, while polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) were used to form a hydrophobic barrier. The samples were characterized by determining their swelling ratio (SR%) and performing rheological tests, including amplitude and frequency sweeps, which confirmed the formation of stable gels across the different formulations. Samples containing only κ-carrageenan showed a high water absorption capacity, with SR% values of up to 4700%. The addition of microcrystalline cellulose slightly reduced the SR% to approximately 3500% but increased the elasticity of the structure. The incorporation of hydrophobic PHAs significantly increased the elastic and viscous moduli, strengthening the matrix while reducing water absorption, with SR% values ranging from approximately 1800% to 2200%. Based on the characterization results, four core-shell hydrogels and four bulk hydrogels were prepared, and their urea-release kinetics in deionized water were compared. UV-vis colorimetric analysis showed that the core-shell structures significantly slowed urea release compared with the bulk systems, in which more than 70-80% of the incorporated urea was released within the first three hours. In the core-shell hydrogels, the initial release remained limited during the first three hours and was followed by an approximately linear phase between the third and fifth hours; release was completed within 20 hours. Although further optimization is required to achieve release times suitable for practical applications, the results indicate that the core-shell architecture and the use of PHA-based hydrophobic barriers represent a promising strategy for developing sustainable controlled-release fertilizer systems for agricultural applications.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12608/118130