Background: the external limiting membrane (ELM) and the ellipsoid zone (EZ) are two hyperreflective bands visible on spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) in the outermost portion of the neurosensory retina, now recognized as structural and functional biomarkers of photoreceptor integrity. In 2023 the Food and Drug Administration recognized EZ attenuation as an approvable endpoint in clinical trials on dry age-related macular degeneration (AMD), confirming its clinical relevance. Purpose: this thesis aims to systematically and critically reconstruct the anatomical, pathophysiological and clinical knowledge on ELM and EZ, analyzing their histological correlate, the evolution of OCT nomenclature, and their prognostic significance in the main retinal diseases, within the broader context of multimodal imaging and artificial intelligence applied to OCT analysis. Methods: a narrative review of the international literature was conducted on PubMed/MEDLINE, PubMed Central, ScienceDirect and Google Scholar; the primary search on PubMed/PubMed Central yielded 1,880 records, from which 37 works were selected, all cited in the text with progressive numbering, prioritizing systematic reviews and original studies from 2023-2025, supplemented by foundational studies. Results: the ELM, formed by junctional complexes between the apical processes of Muller cells and photoreceptors, and the EZ, corresponding to the mitochondria-rich region of the photoreceptor inner segments, can be well identified and quantified on SD-OCT and show a hierarchical pattern of structural recovery (ELM recovers before EZ), particularly in diabetic macular edema. Complementary imaging techniques (adaptive optics, fundus autofluorescence, microperimetry, electroretinography) and deep-learning algorithms for automated segmentation further expand the possibilities for quantitative assessment of these structures. Discussion: the evidence consistently supports the ELM-before-EZ recovery hierarchy and the prognostic value of the EZ and ELM, which correlates more closely with topographic functional measures (microperimetry, focal ERG) than with visual acuity; the exact origin of the EZ band, the standardization of quantitative metrics and the multi-device validation of artificial-intelligence algorithms remain open issues. Conclusions: ELM and EZ today represent reference OCT biomarkers for assessing photoreceptor integrity, with established applications in clinical practice and growing relevance as endpoints in therapeutic trials, within a context of multimodal integration and artificial-intelligence support.
Background: la membrana limitante esterna (ELM) e la zona ellissoide (EZ) sono due bande iperriflettenti visibili alla tomografia a coerenza ottica nel dominio spettrale (SD-OCT) nella porzione più esterna della retina neurosensoriale, oggi riconosciute come biomarker strutturali e funzionali dell’integrità dei fotorecettori. Nel 2023 la Food and Drug Administration ha riconosciuto l’attenuazione della EZ come endpoint approvabile negli studi clinici sulla degenerazione maculare legata all’età (AMD) secca, confermandone la rilevanza clinica. Scopo: il presente elaborato si propone di ricostruire in modo sistematico e critico le conoscenze anatomiche, fisiopatologiche e cliniche relative a ELM ed EZ, analizzandone il correlato istologico, l’evoluzione della nomenclatura OCT e il significato prognostico nelle principali patologie retiniche, nel contesto più ampio dell’imaging multimodale e dell’intelligenza artificiale applicata all’analisi OCT. Metodi: È stata condotta una revisione narrativa della letteratura internazionale su PubMed/MEDLINE, PubMed Central, ScienceDirect e Google Scholar; la ricerca principale su PubMed/PubMed Central ha restituito 1.880 record, da cui sono stati selezionati 37 lavori, tutti citati nel testo con numerazione progressiva, con priorità alle revisioni sistematiche e agli studi originali del triennio 2023–2025, integrati dagli studi fondativi. Risultati: l’ELM, formata da complessi giunzionali tra i prolungamenti apicali delle cellule di Müller e i fotorecettori, e la EZ, corrispondente alla regione mitocondriale dei segmenti interni dei fotorecettori, possono essere ben analizzate e quantificate in SD-OCT e mostrano una gerarchia di recupero strutturale (l’ELM precede la EZ) in particolare nell’edema maculare diabetico. Le metodiche di imaging complementare (ottica adattiva, autofluorescenza del fundus, microperimetria, elettroretinografia) e gli algoritmi di deep learning per la segmentazione automatica ampliano ulteriormente le possibilità di valutazione quantitativa di queste strutture. Discussione: le evidenze concordano sulla gerarchia di recupero ELM → EZ e sul valore prognostico della EZ ed ELM, più stretto con le misure funzionali topografiche (microperimetria, focal ERG) che con l’acuità visiva; restano punti aperti, la standardizzazione delle metriche quantitative e la validazione multi- dispositivo degli algoritmi di intelligenza artificiale. Conclusioni: ELM ed EZ rappresentano oggi biomarker OCT di riferimento per la valutazione dell’integrità dei fotorecettori, con applicazioni consolidate nella pratica clinica e crescente rilievo come endpoint nei trial terapeutici, in un contesto di integrazione multimodale e di supporto dell’intelligenza artificiale.
La retina esterna nell'imaging multimodale: membrana limitante esterna e zona ellissoide come biomarker strutturali e funzionali
FRANCHETTI, GIULIA
2025/2026
Abstract
Background: the external limiting membrane (ELM) and the ellipsoid zone (EZ) are two hyperreflective bands visible on spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) in the outermost portion of the neurosensory retina, now recognized as structural and functional biomarkers of photoreceptor integrity. In 2023 the Food and Drug Administration recognized EZ attenuation as an approvable endpoint in clinical trials on dry age-related macular degeneration (AMD), confirming its clinical relevance. Purpose: this thesis aims to systematically and critically reconstruct the anatomical, pathophysiological and clinical knowledge on ELM and EZ, analyzing their histological correlate, the evolution of OCT nomenclature, and their prognostic significance in the main retinal diseases, within the broader context of multimodal imaging and artificial intelligence applied to OCT analysis. Methods: a narrative review of the international literature was conducted on PubMed/MEDLINE, PubMed Central, ScienceDirect and Google Scholar; the primary search on PubMed/PubMed Central yielded 1,880 records, from which 37 works were selected, all cited in the text with progressive numbering, prioritizing systematic reviews and original studies from 2023-2025, supplemented by foundational studies. Results: the ELM, formed by junctional complexes between the apical processes of Muller cells and photoreceptors, and the EZ, corresponding to the mitochondria-rich region of the photoreceptor inner segments, can be well identified and quantified on SD-OCT and show a hierarchical pattern of structural recovery (ELM recovers before EZ), particularly in diabetic macular edema. Complementary imaging techniques (adaptive optics, fundus autofluorescence, microperimetry, electroretinography) and deep-learning algorithms for automated segmentation further expand the possibilities for quantitative assessment of these structures. Discussion: the evidence consistently supports the ELM-before-EZ recovery hierarchy and the prognostic value of the EZ and ELM, which correlates more closely with topographic functional measures (microperimetry, focal ERG) than with visual acuity; the exact origin of the EZ band, the standardization of quantitative metrics and the multi-device validation of artificial-intelligence algorithms remain open issues. Conclusions: ELM and EZ today represent reference OCT biomarkers for assessing photoreceptor integrity, with established applications in clinical practice and growing relevance as endpoints in therapeutic trials, within a context of multimodal integration and artificial-intelligence support.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12608/119231