Klinefelter Syndrome (KS) is the most common anomaly of sex chromosomes in the male population and the leading cause of male hypogonadism. It is characterized by the presence of one or more extra X chromosomes, thus diagnosis is confirmed through karyotype analysis. Its incidence is approximately 1 in 600 live male births. However, due to its often mild and nonspecific phenotypic manifestations, the condition is frequently underdiagnosed. Diagnosis can be made prenatally through non-invasive tests but is more commonly detected during adolescence or adulthood. Clinical signs that may lead to the identification of the syndrome include hypotrophic testes, delayed sexual development, sparse body hair, high-pitched voice, gynecomastia, academic or cognitive difficulties, issues with sexual desire, and particularly difficulties with procreation. The primary treatment for KS involves the administration of exogenous testosterone (TRT) in various formulations. However, considering that KS is responsible for 10% of azoospermia cases and 2% of general male infertility, it is crucial to adopt strategies for fertility preservation in these patients. Currently, TESE (Testicular Sperm Extraction) is the only available technique for sperm retrieval, which are then cryopreserved for use in assisted reproductive techniques such as ICSI (Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection). The sperm retrieval rate through this method is around 40%, a statistic also confirmed in our study. This thesis represents the first study on a large cohort of 176 patients with Klinefelter Syndrome and azoospermia, aimed at identifying possible hormonal, ultrasonographic and histological parameters that could predict sperm retrieval through TESE. The results highlighted a significant correlation between the age at the first visit and the retrieval of spermatozoa, emphasizing the crucial importance of early diagnosis in these patients. This could be facilitated through andrological prevention campaigns and increased awareness among general practitioners and pediatricians. Although the ultrasound data did not show statistical significance for sperm retrieval, histological analysis proved to play a critical role, particularly in the presence of seminiferous tubule sclerosis detected in testicular biopsy. Given the complexity involved in the diagnosis, management, and fertility preservation procedures for patients with Klinefelter syndrome, it is essential that these individuals are managed in specialized referral centers with highly qualified personnel.
La sindrome di Klinefelter (KS) rappresenta la più comune anomalia dei cromosomi sessuali nella popolazione maschile, nonché la principale causa di ipogonadismo maschile. È caratterizzata dalla presenza di uno o più cromosomi X sovrannumerari; perciò, la diagnosi viene confermata tramite un’analisi del cariotipo. La sua incidenza è di circa 1 su 600 nati vivi maschi. Tuttavia, a causa delle manifestazioni fenotipiche spesso lievi e non specifiche, la condizione è frequentemente sottodiagnosticata. La diagnosi può essere effettuata già in fase prenatale tramite test non invasivi, ma più comunemente viene rilevata durante l'adolescenza o l'età adulta. I segni clinici che possono condurre all’identificazione della sindrome includono testicoli ipotrofici, ritardo dello sviluppo sessuale, scarsa presenza di peli corporei e voce acuta, ginecomastia, problemi scolastici o cognitivi, problemi del desiderio sessuale e soprattutto difficoltà nella procreazione. Il trattamento principale per la KS consiste nella somministrazione di testosterone esogeno (TRT) in diverse formulazioni. Tuttavia, considerando che la KS è responsabile del 10% dei casi di azoospermia e del 2% dell'infertilità maschile generale, è fondamentale adottare strategie per la preservazione della fertilità in questi pazienti. Attualmente, nei pazienti azooospermici, la TESE (Testicular Sperm Extraction) è l'unica tecnica disponibile per il recupero degli spermatozoi, che vengono successivamente crioconservati per l'utilizzo nelle tecniche di fertilizzazione assistita come l’ICSI (IntraCytoplasmatic Sperm Injection). La percentuale di recupero di spermatozoi attraverso questa metodica si aggira intorno al 40%, un dato confermato anche nel nostro studio. Questa tesi rappresenta il primo studio su un'ampia casistica di 176 pazienti con sindrome di Klinefelter ed azoospermia, mirato ad identificare possibili parametri ormonali, ecografici e istologici che possano andare a predire il recupero degli spermatozoi mediante TESE. I risultati hanno evidenziato una correlazione significativa tra l’età alla prima visita e il recupero degli spermatozoi, sottolineando l'importanza cruciale di una diagnosi precoce in questi pazienti. Ciò potrebbe essere facilitato attraverso campagne di prevenzione andrologica ed una maggiore sensibilizzazione tra i medici di medicina generale ed i pediatri. Nonostante i dati ecografici non abbiano mostrato una significatività statistica per il recupero degli spermatozoi, l'analisi istologica ha dimostrato un ruolo fondamentale, specialmente in presenza di sclerotizzazione dei tubuli seminiferi. Data la complessità che caratterizza la diagnosi, la gestione e le procedure per la preservazione della fertilità nei pazienti affetti da sindrome di Klinefelter, è essenziale che questi individui siano seguiti presso centri di riferimento specializzati con personale altamente qualificato.
Sindrome di Klinefelter: associazione tra parametri ormonali, ecografici e istologici testicolari
PACHERA, MATILDE
2023/2024
Abstract
Klinefelter Syndrome (KS) is the most common anomaly of sex chromosomes in the male population and the leading cause of male hypogonadism. It is characterized by the presence of one or more extra X chromosomes, thus diagnosis is confirmed through karyotype analysis. Its incidence is approximately 1 in 600 live male births. However, due to its often mild and nonspecific phenotypic manifestations, the condition is frequently underdiagnosed. Diagnosis can be made prenatally through non-invasive tests but is more commonly detected during adolescence or adulthood. Clinical signs that may lead to the identification of the syndrome include hypotrophic testes, delayed sexual development, sparse body hair, high-pitched voice, gynecomastia, academic or cognitive difficulties, issues with sexual desire, and particularly difficulties with procreation. The primary treatment for KS involves the administration of exogenous testosterone (TRT) in various formulations. However, considering that KS is responsible for 10% of azoospermia cases and 2% of general male infertility, it is crucial to adopt strategies for fertility preservation in these patients. Currently, TESE (Testicular Sperm Extraction) is the only available technique for sperm retrieval, which are then cryopreserved for use in assisted reproductive techniques such as ICSI (Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection). The sperm retrieval rate through this method is around 40%, a statistic also confirmed in our study. This thesis represents the first study on a large cohort of 176 patients with Klinefelter Syndrome and azoospermia, aimed at identifying possible hormonal, ultrasonographic and histological parameters that could predict sperm retrieval through TESE. The results highlighted a significant correlation between the age at the first visit and the retrieval of spermatozoa, emphasizing the crucial importance of early diagnosis in these patients. This could be facilitated through andrological prevention campaigns and increased awareness among general practitioners and pediatricians. Although the ultrasound data did not show statistical significance for sperm retrieval, histological analysis proved to play a critical role, particularly in the presence of seminiferous tubule sclerosis detected in testicular biopsy. Given the complexity involved in the diagnosis, management, and fertility preservation procedures for patients with Klinefelter syndrome, it is essential that these individuals are managed in specialized referral centers with highly qualified personnel.File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12608/65736