In the field of cognitive sciences, visual perception in dogs represents a topic of significant interest, yet remains only partially understood. Although our understanding of the functional properties of the canine visual system, such as visual acuity, color perception, and light sensitivity, is relatively well developed, knowledge of higher-level visual processes remains limited. In particular, many questions remain unresolved on how dogs process monocular visual cues to build a three-dimensional representation of the environment. This study aims to explore the role of low- and high-contrast shading, applied to a two-dimensional pictorial stimulus, in dogs’ perception of depth and three-dimensionality. The experimental sample consisted of fifty-two dogs, selected to ensure heterogeneity in terms of breed, age and sex. Each subject was exposed to two distinct experimental conditions: a control condition, in which a ball was rolled along an apparatus until it fell into a real hole, and an experimental condition, in which the ball followed the same path but the hole was replaced with a two-dimensional representation of it. This pictorial representation was obtained by photographing the real hole and subsequently modifying the image to isolate the specific contribution of the shading. To produce high-contrast shading, a photographic lighting kit was placed behind the apparatus and pointed toward the depicted hole, in order to enhance the luminance contrast between the apparatus and the hole. The experiment was based on the violation of expectation paradigm, according to which an event that contradicts an animal’s expectations about the physical world elicits a reaction of surprise, typically measured by an increase in the time spent observing the area where the anomaly occurred. To collect and analyze the data, three areas of visual attention were defined: a "beginning of the apparatus" area, an "end of the apparatus" area and a third area that enclosed the remaining space, defined as "elsewhere". The dogs' gaze behavior within these three areas was monitored during the 30 seconds following the disappearance of the ball, in order to detect any behavioral differences between the real-hole and depicted-hole conditions. The results of the statistical analysis showed that, in the high-contrast shading condition, there was a significant increase in the observation time of the end of apparatus in the experimental condition compared to the control, suggesting a reaction of surprise to an unexpected event. This suggests that the dogs interpreted the two-dimensional representation of the hole as if it were real and, when the ball did not fall into it but continued beyond, they displayed a reaction of surprise in response to an unexpected event. In contrast, no significant effect was found in the low-contrast shading condition, suggesting that a minimal luminance difference is not sufficient to elicit the perception of three-dimensionality and depth in two-dimensional images in dogs. In conclusion, the results support the hypothesis that high-contrast shading may be a determining factor in dogs’ depth perception, highlighting their potential sensitivity to certain monocular visual cues. Further research is needed to more precisely define the scope and limitations of this perceptual ability, as well as to investigate the contribution of additional visual factors to three-dimensional representation in dogs.
Nell’ambito delle scienze cognitive, la percezione visiva nel cane rappresenta un settore di grande interesse e, al tempo stesso, ancora parzialmente inesplorato. Nonostante le nostre conoscenze riguardo le proprietà funzionali dell’apparato visivo dei cani, come l’acuità visiva, la percezione dei colori e la sensibilità alla luce siano piuttosto approfondite, la comprensione di processi visivi superiori rimane limitata. In particolare, restano aperti numerosi interrogativi sul modo in cui i cani elaborano gli indizi visivi monoculari per costruire una rappresentazione tridimensionale dell’ambiente. Il presente studio si propone di approfondire il ruolo che assume l’ombreggiatura a basso e ad alto contrasto, su uno stimolo pittorico bidimensionale, nella percezione della profondità e della tridimensionalità del cane. Il campione sperimentale è composto da cinquantadue cani, selezionati in modo da garantire eterogeneità per razza, età e sesso. Ciascun soggetto è stato sottoposto a due condizioni sperimentali distinte: una condizione di controllo, in cui una pallina veniva fatta rotolare lungo un apparato fino a cadere in un foro reale, e una condizione sperimentale, in cui la pallina seguiva lo stesso percorso ma il buco veniva sostituito con una sua rappresentazione bidimensionale, ottenuta fotografando il buco reale e modificando successivamente l’immagine per isolare il contributo dell’ombreggiatura. Inoltre, per ottenere l’ombreggiatura ad alto contrasto è stato impiegato un kit di illuminazione fotografica che veniva posizionato dietro l’apparato, puntato verso il buco raffigurato, di modo da aumentare il contrasto di luminanza tra apparato e foro. L’esperimento è stato basato sul paradigma di violazione dell’aspettativa, secondo cui un evento che contrasta le aspettative che l’animale ha del mondo fisico genera una reazione di stupore, la quale si manifesta tramite un aumento del tempo di osservazione dell’area in cui si è verificata l’anomalia. Per poter effettuare la raccolta e analisi dei dati sono state individuate tre aree di attenzione del cane: una zona di “inizio dell’apparato”, una “a fine apparato” e un’area che racchiudeva lo spazio restante, definita “altrove”. L’attenzione dei cani nelle tre aree è stata monitorata nei 30 secondi successivi alla scomparsa della pallina, al fine di rilevare eventuali differenze comportamentali tra le condizioni di buco vero e raffigurato. I risultati dell’analisi statistica hanno mostrato, nella condizione con ombreggiatura ad alto contrasto, un aumento significativo del tempo di osservazione della zona di fine apparato nella condizione sperimentale rispetto a quella di controllo. Ciò suggerisce che i cani interpretassero la rappresentazione bidimensionale del buco come reale e che, di fronte alla pallina che non vi cadeva ma proseguiva oltre, manifestassero una reazione di sorpresa di fronte a un evento inatteso. Al contrario, nessun effetto significativo è stato rilevato nella condizione con ombreggiatura a basso contrasto, indicando che una bassa differenza di luminanza non è sufficiente a indurre nei cani la percezione di tridimensionalità e profondità in immagini bidimensionali. In conclusione, i risultati ottenuti supportano l’idea che l’ombreggiatura ad alto contrasto possa costituire un fattore determinante nella percezione della profondità da parte dei cani, evidenziando una loro potenziale sensibilità ad alcuni indizi visivi monoculari. Ulteriori studi saranno necessari per chiarire con maggiore precisione l’estensione e i limiti di questa competenza percettiva, nonché per indagare il ruolo di altri fattori visivi nella costruzione della tridimensionalità nel cane.
Il ruolo dell’ombreggiatura ad alto e basso contrasto nella percezione della profondità e della tridimensionalità nel cane (Canis familiaris)
DICORATO, ELENA
2024/2025
Abstract
In the field of cognitive sciences, visual perception in dogs represents a topic of significant interest, yet remains only partially understood. Although our understanding of the functional properties of the canine visual system, such as visual acuity, color perception, and light sensitivity, is relatively well developed, knowledge of higher-level visual processes remains limited. In particular, many questions remain unresolved on how dogs process monocular visual cues to build a three-dimensional representation of the environment. This study aims to explore the role of low- and high-contrast shading, applied to a two-dimensional pictorial stimulus, in dogs’ perception of depth and three-dimensionality. The experimental sample consisted of fifty-two dogs, selected to ensure heterogeneity in terms of breed, age and sex. Each subject was exposed to two distinct experimental conditions: a control condition, in which a ball was rolled along an apparatus until it fell into a real hole, and an experimental condition, in which the ball followed the same path but the hole was replaced with a two-dimensional representation of it. This pictorial representation was obtained by photographing the real hole and subsequently modifying the image to isolate the specific contribution of the shading. To produce high-contrast shading, a photographic lighting kit was placed behind the apparatus and pointed toward the depicted hole, in order to enhance the luminance contrast between the apparatus and the hole. The experiment was based on the violation of expectation paradigm, according to which an event that contradicts an animal’s expectations about the physical world elicits a reaction of surprise, typically measured by an increase in the time spent observing the area where the anomaly occurred. To collect and analyze the data, three areas of visual attention were defined: a "beginning of the apparatus" area, an "end of the apparatus" area and a third area that enclosed the remaining space, defined as "elsewhere". The dogs' gaze behavior within these three areas was monitored during the 30 seconds following the disappearance of the ball, in order to detect any behavioral differences between the real-hole and depicted-hole conditions. The results of the statistical analysis showed that, in the high-contrast shading condition, there was a significant increase in the observation time of the end of apparatus in the experimental condition compared to the control, suggesting a reaction of surprise to an unexpected event. This suggests that the dogs interpreted the two-dimensional representation of the hole as if it were real and, when the ball did not fall into it but continued beyond, they displayed a reaction of surprise in response to an unexpected event. In contrast, no significant effect was found in the low-contrast shading condition, suggesting that a minimal luminance difference is not sufficient to elicit the perception of three-dimensionality and depth in two-dimensional images in dogs. In conclusion, the results support the hypothesis that high-contrast shading may be a determining factor in dogs’ depth perception, highlighting their potential sensitivity to certain monocular visual cues. Further research is needed to more precisely define the scope and limitations of this perceptual ability, as well as to investigate the contribution of additional visual factors to three-dimensional representation in dogs.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12608/91595