Background and objective of the study: Autophagy is a cellular process responsible for the degradation and recycling of damaged intracellular components, which is essential for the maintenance of cellular homeostasis. In the context of atherosclerosis, it plays a protective role by promoting cell survival under stress conditions. However, most currently available autophagy inducers act through mTORC1 inhibition, resulting in potential off-target effects that limit their therapeutic application. The aim of this study was to evaluate the biological activity of two new autophagy-inducing compounds capable of acting independently of mTORC1, that were previously identified through a high-throughput screening. In particular, their ability to promote autophagy and protect cells from cell death was analyzed in primary vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) and bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs). Methods: Mouse VSMCs and BMDMs were treated with the new autophagy-inducing compounds (compounds 26 and 30), and analyzed by Western blotting and a fluorescent apoptosis-necrosis (FAN) assay. Autophagy induction was assessed by Western blotting through the analysis of LC3-II and p62 protein levels. Furthermore, the protective capacity of the novel compounds and reference autophagy modulators against 7-ketocholesterol-induced cell death was evaluated. As a pro-atherogenic oxidized cholesterol, 7-ketocholesterol induces oxidative stress, lysosomal dysfunction, and cell injury, serving as a well-established model to study autophagy and cell death pathways. Results: In VSMCs, compounds 26 and 30 increased LC3-II levels after 24 hours, without conclusive evidence of increased autophagic flux. In BMDMs, compound 26 increased LC3-II and reduced p62 levels after 4 hours, whereas these effects were not maintained at 24 hours. In the FAN assay, compound 30 showed a concentration-dependent protective effect against 7KC-induced cell death in both VSMCs and BMDMs. The reference autophagy inducer trehalose also showed a protective effect, whereas reference autophagy inhibitor SAR-405 increased 7KC-induced cell death. Conclusions: Compound 30 emerged as the most promising candidate, modulating autophagy-related markers and showing a concentration-dependent protective effect against 7KC-induced cell death in both VSMCs and BMDMs. In contrast, compound 26 showed more limited effects, with no significant protective activity. Overall, these findings suggest that the cellular response to 7KC depends on the specific treatment and cell type, and that the protective effect of compound 30 cannot yet be attributed solely to autophagy. Further studies are needed to clarify its mechanism of action and evaluate its potential in more complex models.
Background e obiettivo dello studio: L'autofagia è un processo cellulare responsabile della degradazione e del riciclo dei componenti intracellulari danneggiati, essenziale per il mantenimento dell'omeostasi cellulare. Nel contesto dell'aterosclerosi, svolge un ruolo protettivo promuovendo la sopravvivenza cellulare in condizioni di stress. Tuttavia, la maggior parte degli induttori dell'autofagia attualmente disponibili agisce attraverso l'inibizione di mTORC1, determinando potenziali effetti off-target che ne limitano l'applicazione terapeutica. Lo scopo di questo studio è stato quello di valutare l'attività biologica di due nuovi composti induttori dell'autofagia in grado di agire indipendentemente da mTORC1, precedentemente identificati mediante uno screening ad alta processività (high-throughput screening). In particolare, è stata analizzata la loro capacità di promuovere l'autofagia e proteggere le cellule dalla morte cellulare in cellule muscolari lisce vascolari primarie (VSMCs) e macrofagi derivati dal midollo osseo (BMDMs). Metodi: Le VSMCs e i BMDMs murini sono stati trattati con i nuovi composti induttori dell'autofagia (composti 26 e 30) e analizzati mediante Western blot e saggio fluorescente di apoptosi-necrosi (FAN). L'induzione dell'autofagia è stata valutata mediante Western blot attraverso l'analisi dei livelli proteici di LC3-II e p62. Inoltre, è stata valutata la capacità protettiva dei nuovi composti e di modulatori di riferimento dell'autofagia nei confronti della morte cellulare indotta da 7-chetocolesterolo. In quanto colesterolo ossidato pro-aterogeno, il 7-chetocolesterolo induce stress ossidativo, disfunzione lisosomiale e danno cellulare, rappresentando un modello consolidato per lo studio dei meccanismi dell'autofagia e della morte cellulare. Risultati: Nelle VSMCs, i composti 26 e 30 hanno aumentato i livelli di LC3-II dopo 24 ore, senza evidenza conclusiva di un aumento del flusso autofagico. Nei BMDMs, il composto 26 ha aumentato LC3-II e ridotto p62 dopo 4 ore, mentre questi effetti non sono stati mantenuti a 24 ore. Nel saggio FAN, il composto 30 ha mostrato un effetto protettivo concentrazione-dipendente contro la morte cellulare indotta da 7KC sia nelle VSMCs sia nei BMDMs. Anche il trealosio ha mostrato un effetto protettivo, mentre SAR-405 ha aumentato la morte cellulare indotta da 7KC. Conclusioni: Il composto 30 è emerso come il candidato più promettente, modulando i marcatori correlati all’autofagia e mostrando un effetto protettivo concentrazione-dipendente contro la morte cellulare indotta da 7KC sia nelle VSMCs sia nei BMDMs. Al contrario, il composto 26 ha mostrato effetti più limitati, senza evidenziare un significativo effetto protettivo. Nel complesso, i risultati suggeriscono che la risposta cellulare al 7KC dipenda dal trattamento e dal tipo cellulare e che l’effetto protettivo del composto 30 non possa essere ancora attribuito esclusivamente all’autofagia. Saranno necessari ulteriori studi per chiarirne il meccanismo d’azione e valutarne il potenziale in modelli più complessi.
Characterization of novel autophagy inducers and their protective effects in an in vitro atherosclerosis model
LUPATINI, CLAUDIA
2025/2026
Abstract
Background and objective of the study: Autophagy is a cellular process responsible for the degradation and recycling of damaged intracellular components, which is essential for the maintenance of cellular homeostasis. In the context of atherosclerosis, it plays a protective role by promoting cell survival under stress conditions. However, most currently available autophagy inducers act through mTORC1 inhibition, resulting in potential off-target effects that limit their therapeutic application. The aim of this study was to evaluate the biological activity of two new autophagy-inducing compounds capable of acting independently of mTORC1, that were previously identified through a high-throughput screening. In particular, their ability to promote autophagy and protect cells from cell death was analyzed in primary vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) and bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs). Methods: Mouse VSMCs and BMDMs were treated with the new autophagy-inducing compounds (compounds 26 and 30), and analyzed by Western blotting and a fluorescent apoptosis-necrosis (FAN) assay. Autophagy induction was assessed by Western blotting through the analysis of LC3-II and p62 protein levels. Furthermore, the protective capacity of the novel compounds and reference autophagy modulators against 7-ketocholesterol-induced cell death was evaluated. As a pro-atherogenic oxidized cholesterol, 7-ketocholesterol induces oxidative stress, lysosomal dysfunction, and cell injury, serving as a well-established model to study autophagy and cell death pathways. Results: In VSMCs, compounds 26 and 30 increased LC3-II levels after 24 hours, without conclusive evidence of increased autophagic flux. In BMDMs, compound 26 increased LC3-II and reduced p62 levels after 4 hours, whereas these effects were not maintained at 24 hours. In the FAN assay, compound 30 showed a concentration-dependent protective effect against 7KC-induced cell death in both VSMCs and BMDMs. The reference autophagy inducer trehalose also showed a protective effect, whereas reference autophagy inhibitor SAR-405 increased 7KC-induced cell death. Conclusions: Compound 30 emerged as the most promising candidate, modulating autophagy-related markers and showing a concentration-dependent protective effect against 7KC-induced cell death in both VSMCs and BMDMs. In contrast, compound 26 showed more limited effects, with no significant protective activity. Overall, these findings suggest that the cellular response to 7KC depends on the specific treatment and cell type, and that the protective effect of compound 30 cannot yet be attributed solely to autophagy. Further studies are needed to clarify its mechanism of action and evaluate its potential in more complex models.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12608/118519